Stark Reality of India’s Educational Costs: Widening Equity Gap

GS 2(TOPIC-SOCIAL JUSTICE)

Why in the News

• Recently, the findings of the NSS 80th Round Survey (April-June 2025) on ‘Comprehensive Modular Survey: Education’ were published, highlighting the stark reality of educational costs in India.
• The survey’s core finding is the growing inequalities in access to quality education, driven by rising costs associated with increased private school enrolment and the phenomenon of private tuition, which collectively threaten the principle of basic and universal education.

Constitutional and Policy Context of Education in India

Education, originally a State Subject, was moved to the Concurrent List by the 42nd Amendment, 1976, allowing both Central and State governments to legislate upon it. The constitutional and policy vision for education is comprehensive:

• Fundamental Right (Article 21A): Right to Free and Compulsory Education guaranteed for children aged six to 14 years (inserted by the 86th Amendment, 2002).
• Directive Principles (Article 45): State endeavour required to provide early childhood care and education for children until they complete the age of six years.
• Fundamental Duty {Article 51A(k)}: Duty of every parent or guardian to provide opportunities for education to their child/ward between the ages of six and fourteen years.
• Weaker Sections (Article 46): State promotion required for the educational and economic interests of Scheduled Castes (SC), Scheduled Tribes (ST), and other weaker sections.
• Policy Vision: The National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 expands the goal to ages three to 18 years, aiming for the universalisation of school education up to the secondary level by 2030.
• Global Commitment: Adherence is provided to Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 4, which targets inclusive and equitable quality education and promotes lifelong learning opportunities for all.

Core Findings on Educational Costs and Participation

Recent data reveals a structural shift in enrolment patterns and associated costs:

I. Enrolment and Urban-Rural Disparities

• Government School Enrolment: 55.9% of students are enrolled in government schools nationally, while 31.9% attend private unaided schools.
• Rising Private Share: An increased share of children is observed to be enrolled in private schools across all levels compared to previous surveys, indicating a growing trend away from public schooling.
• Urban Concentration: Private school enrolment is substantially higher in the urban sector (51.4% of schoolchildren) compared to the rural sector (24.3% share).

II. Financial Burden on Households

• Course Fees: Payment of course fees is near universal in private schools (98%) but is also reported by a significant minority in government schools (up to 34.7% in urban areas).
• High Private School Fees: Annual fees in private schools range from ₹17,988 to ₹49,075, increasing with the level of education.
• Economic Strain: Monthly private schooling expenditure for higher secondary students in urban areas (₹4,089) is equivalent to the Monthly Per Capita Expenditure (MPCE) of households in the third income decile, underscoring the severe financial strain on lower-income families.

III. Private Tuition: The Hidden Cost

• Incidence: Private coaching is availed by 25.5% of children in rural areas and 30.7% in urban areas, rising significantly at the secondary level (up to 44.6% in urban higher secondary).
• Coaching Expenditure: Average annual expenditure on private coaching is significantly higher in the urban sector (₹13,026) than in the rural sector (₹7,066).
• Contributing Factors: High demand is correlated with higher household income, better educated parents, and urban residence. Reliance on tuition is linked to the reality that many private school teachers are underpaid and underqualified, necessitating compensatory academic support outside school.

Challenges and Issues in Educational Equity

The constitutional vision of education as a fundamental right is continuously challenged by structural inefficiencies and socio-economic disparities, which recent survey data has further illuminated:

Concern	Key Issues	Impacts
Financial Strain & Two-Tiered System	Unaffordability: Education is treated as a private transaction, leading to a two-tiered system where quality is concentrated in institutions accessible only to the wealthy.	Monthly private schooling expenditure for higher secondary students (₹4,089 in urban areas) is equivalent to the MPCE of the third income decile, severely restricting low-income families.
Quality Deficit in Public Education	Infrastructure & Safety: Critical deficits persist in rural/underserved areas, affecting student safety, learning, and consistent attendance.	Reports of tragic roof collapses in government schools (e.g., Piplodi, Rajasthan) highlight grave neglect of safety audits.
	Poor Learning Outcomes: Declining government enrolment suggests a perceived quality deficit and weak learning outcomes, pushing parents to private options.	ASER reports show only 23.4% of Class 3 students in government schools can read a Class 2-level text, illustrating the foundational learning gap.
Teacher Quality and Shortage	Underqualified Workforce & Shortage: A significant proportion of teachers, especially in the private sector, lack professional qualifications, compromising foundational quality.	India faces a severe shortage of over 1 million teachers nationwide, leading to high pupil-teacher ratios (up to 47:1) in rural areas like Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
	Motivational/Workload: Low pay, excessive non-instructional duties (e.g., mid-day meal management) lead to absenteeism and reduced classroom motivation.	–
Private Tuition & Learning Asymmetry	Amplification of Disparity: Normalisation of private coaching as a supplement amplifies learning disparities, creating an academic advantage for the wealthy.	High tuition is prevalent even among private school students, suggesting underpaid/underqualified teachers compel families to seek costly external support.
Socio-Cultural & Regional Disparities	Gender/Caste Barriers: Traditional attitudes, early marriage, and prevailing caste discrimination weaken the expansion and completion levels for SC/ST and girl children.	SC/ST children face prejudice and structural issues like having to travel more than 5 km to access secondary schools.
Governance & Financial Gaps	Inadequate Public Funding: Public expenditure on education remains below the NEP 2020 target of 6\% of GDP (currently 4.6%). Corruption and Misappropriation: Instances of fund diversion meant for student welfare and school infrastructure have been reported, diverting essential resources away from improving school quality and integrity.	The lack of a central framework ensuring minimum per-student spending reinforces regional inequality (e.g., vast difference in parental spending between states like Haryana and Bihar).

National Education Policy (NEP) 2020

The National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 provides a transformative blueprint, though its implementation faces notable obstacles:

I. Positive Aspects (Vision and Scope)

• Holistic Development: Emphasis is placed on holistic and multidisciplinary learning, promoting critical thinking, creativity, and problem-solving skills.
• Foundational Literacy: Focus on achieving Foundational Literacy and Numeracy (FLN) for all children by Grade 3 is positioned as an immediate national mission.
• Vocational Integration: Introduction of vocational education from Grade 6 with hands-on training and internships aims to enhance student employability and align skills with real-world scenarios.
• Inclusivity and Technology: Policy places a high priority on inclusive education for underprivileged communities and students with disabilities, alongside the integration of technology via platforms like DIKSHA to reduce the digital divide.
• Flexibility: Policy introduces flexible learning pathways and curriculum restructuring (5+3+3+4 pattern) to reduce rote learning and student burden.

II. Implementation Concerns

• Digital Divide Imbalance: Heavy emphasis on digital education risks exacerbating the digital gap, as not all students, especially in rural areas, possess equal access to internet connectivity and digital devices.
• Financial Constraints: Implementation requires substantial funding, aiming for $6\%$ of GDP expenditure on education; insufficient funding could lead to only partial achievement of the policy’s ambitious vision.
• Teacher Readiness: Lack of a clear, robust plan for training the existing workforce to adapt to the new curriculum and pedagogical approaches remains a major obstacle, especially given existing teacher shortages.
• Increased Pressure: Introduction of continuous assessments and focus on standardized examinations at multiple levels could potentially lead to increased academic pressure and competition on students.
• Narrowing of Choices: While aiming for multidisciplinary learning, increased focus on vocational training could inadvertently lead to a narrowing of subject choices, potentially marginalising arts and humanities.

Global Best Practices for Quality Education Improvement

Effective strategies employed globally highlight the importance of investment and systemic reform:

• Teacher Quality and Prestige: Recruitment is prioritised from the highest academic strata, coupled with continuous professional development.
  • EG (Finland): Every teacher is required to hold a master’s degree in education, with the profession being highly respected.
  • EG (South Korea): Teachers are recruited from the top 5% of the graduate cohort.
• Equity and Comprehensive Support: Focus is placed on providing support to struggling students early, with free holistic services provided alongside education.
  • EG (Finland): Students receive free school meals, health care, and psychological counselling to balance social inequality.
• School Autonomy and Accountability: School leaders are empowered with control over local resources and curriculum implementation, coupled with robust oversight.
  • EG (United Kingdom): Autonomous schools like Grant-Maintained (GM) schools have demonstrated reported achievement gains due to local control.

Way Forward (Indian Policy Interventions)

To strengthen the quality and accessibility of public schools and mitigate the rising cost of education, a multi-pronged strategy integrating existing schemes with systemic reforms is essential:

Area of Intervention	Policy Focus	Implementation Strategy
Strengthening Public Systems & Infrastructure	Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan	Efforts must be intensified to ensure holistic school education (pre-school to Class XII). The scheme must be the primary vehicle for addressing infrastructure gaps identified by UDISE+ data and providing RTE entitlements like uniforms and textbooks.
Core Learning Outcomes & Quality	PM SHRI & NIPUN Bharat	PM SHRI must be rapidly scaled to transform government schools into model schools with modern NEP components. NIPUN Bharat must be strictly implemented to achieve Foundational Literacy and Numeracy (FLN).
	Eg: Targeted Learning	Adoption of approaches like ‘Teaching at the Right Level’ (TaRL), successfully piloted in states like Madhya Pradesh under Project SATH-E, is crucial for bridging initial learning gaps.
Teacher Capacity & Professional Status	ITEP & NISHTHA	The Integrated Teacher Education Program (ITEP) must be made mandatory by 2030 to ensure multidisciplinary pre-service training. In-service development must leverage NISHTHA and DIKSHA to meet the 50 hours of Continuous Professional Development (CPD) mandate.
	Eg: Up-skilling	The Malaviya Mission Teacher Training Programme (MMTTP) must be utilised for continuous professional upskilling of teachers to implement the new curriculum effectively.
Financial Access to Higher Education	PM-Vidyalaxmi & CSIS	Schemes providing financial relief must be streamlined. PM-Vidyalaxmi Scheme provides collateral-free education loans. The Central Sector Interest Subsidy (CSIS) Scheme must be effectively administered, providing interest subvention to EWS students.
Attendance, Retention & Health	PM POSHAN & NSIGSE	PM POSHAN (formerly Mid-Day Meal Scheme) must be monitored rigorously for nutritional value and maximum attendance. The National Scheme of Incentive to Girls for Secondary Education (NSIGSE) must be widely promoted to curb secondary-level dropouts of girls.
Support for Marginalised Groups	KGBV & PM-YASASVI	Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya (KGBV) must be utilised effectively to provide residential and schooling facilities for girls from disadvantaged groups. The PM Young Achievers Scholarship Award Scheme for Vibrant India (PM-YASASVI) must be promoted to enhance equity for OBC and EBC students.
Governance & Accountability	PARAKH & UDISE+	The proposed national assessment regulator, PARAKH, must be established to standardise assessments and provide actionable feedback to schools. UDISE+ data must be publicly and proactively used to address resource deficits.
Promoting Digital Equity	Device Provision	Initiatives must focus on providing device and connectivity in low-income and rural areas, moving beyond mere content creation.
	Eg: State Initiatives	The success of state-level initiatives providing laptops, such as the Bihar Free Laptop Yojana (for meritorious 10th and 12th pass students), must be studied for pan-India replication.
Addressing Special Needs (Inclusion)	Saksham Scheme	Specific schemes for students with disabilities must be enhanced. The AICTE Saksham Scholarship Scheme provides financial aid for specially-abled students pursuing technical degrees, requiring expanded outreach.
Curriculum Relevance & Employability	Vocationalisation & NAPS	The integration of vocational education under NEP 2020 must be linked to local industries and skills demand.
	Eg: Industry Linkage	Linking vocational training in schools with the National Apprenticeship Promotion Scheme (NAPS) can provide necessary stipend and practical industry exposure, making education economically viable.

Conclusion

• The NSS 80th Round Survey highlights the critical contradiction in the Indian education system: a constitutional right to free and compulsory education coexisting with a costly reality of private schooling and tuition.
• This trend is exacerbating inequalities, threatening the very principle of universal access.
• Urgent and comprehensive reforms focused on strengthening the quality and accessibility of government schools and ensuring greater financial equity are the essential next steps.
• Education must be ensured to remain a right, not a privilege, for all children in India.

UPSC MAINS PYQs

1. The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009 remains inadequate in promoting incentive-based system for children’s education without generating awareness about the importance of schooling. Analyse. (2022)